Organic Compounds in Life

Organic Compounds

The chemical compounds of living things are known as organic compounds because of their association with organisms. Organic compounds, which are the compounds associated with life processes, are the subject matter of organic chemistry. Among the numerous types of organic compounds, four major categories are found in all living things: carbohydrates, lipids, protein, and nucleic acids.

Protein

Proteins, among the most complex of all organic compounds, are composed of amino acids. Many proteins are immense in size and extremely complex. However, all proteins are composed of long chains of relatively simple amino acids. There are 20 kinds of amino acids. Each amino acid) has an amino (—NH₂) group, a carboxyl (—COOH) group, and a group of atoms called an —R group (where R stands for radical). The amino acids differ depending on the nature of the —R group,. Examples of amino acids are alanine, valine, glutamic acid, tryptophan, tyrosine, and histidine.

The removal of water molecules links amino acids to form a protein. The process is called dehydration synthesis, and a by product of the synthesis is water. The links forged between the amino acids are peptide bonds, and small proteins are often called peptides.

One essential use of proteins is in the construction of enzymes. Enzymes catalyze the chemical reactions that take place within cells. They are not used up in a reaction; rather, they remain available to catalyze succeeding reactions.

All living things depend on proteins for their existence. Proteins are the major molecules from which living things are constructed. Proteins are also found as supporting and strengthening materials in tissues outside of cells. Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments are all composed of protein.

Characteristics of amino acids is determined by the nature of the amino acid side chain itself. Amino acid side chain carboxyl group-containing amino acids are grouped As with acid. Amino acid side chain amino group-containing amino acids are classified as alkaline. Meanwhile, the amino acid side chains do not contain carboxyl and amino acids are classified as neutral. Characteristics of each amino acid side chains that determine the nature and reactivity of the protein molecule.

Changes in the structure of the amino acid side chains resulted in the directional change protein properties. For example, in the case of sickle cell anemia (anemia sickel cell). Senderita sickle cell anemia hemoglobin has a different structure to the structure of normal hemoglobin. Hemoglobin sickle cell anemia patients consisted of 146 amino acid units. A single unit of the constituent amino acid change from glutamic acid (acidic amino acid side chain) to Valina (nonpolar side chain amino acids). This change leads to reduced solubility of sickle cell anemia hemoglobin resulting in reduced ability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen to body cells.

Carbohydrates

Almost all organisms use carbohydrates as sources of energy. In addition, some carbohydrates serve as structural materials. Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; the ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:1.

Simple carbohydrates, commonly referred to as sugars, can be monosaccharides if they are composed of single molecules, or disaccharides if they are composed of two molecules. The most important monosaccharide is glucose, a carbohydrate with the molecular formula C₆H₁₂O₆. Glucose is the basic form of fuel in living things. It is soluble and is transported by body fluids to all cells, where it is metabolized to release its energy. Glucose is the starting material for cellular respiration, and it is the main product of photosynthesis.

 

Aromatic

Aromatic compounds and its structureWhich includes aromatic compounds is• benzene compounds• The chemical compound with chemical properties such as benzene1. BenzeneBenzene and benzene derivative compounds first synthesized by Michael Faraday in 1825, from which the gas is used as fuel for lamps penerang.Sepuluh years later it was discovered that benzene has the molecular formula C6H6 thus concluded that benzene has a double bond more than alkenes.Of the oily residue is buried in the gas mains in London. Currently, the main source of benzene, substituted benzene and aromatic compounds are petroleum: formerly of nearly 90% coal tar compounds active ingredients are aromatic compounds: benzene core has the formula.a. Structure of BenzeneThe double bond in benzene is different from the alkene double bond. The double bond in alkenes can undergo addition reactions, whereas the double bond in benzene can not you get an addition, but benzene can react substitution. Example:Addition reaction: C2H4 + Cl2 -> C2H4Cl2Substitution reaction: C6H6 + Cl2 -> C6H5Cl + HClAccording to Friedrich August Kekulé, six carbon atoms arranged in a cyclic benzene irregular hexagonal shape with a bond angle of 120 ° respectively. Antaratom carbon bond is a double bond and a single alternating (conjugated).
 X-ray analysis of the structure of benzene indicates that the carbon bond lengths in benzene antaratom same, ie 0.139 nm. The length of a double bond C = C is 0.134 nm and the length of C-C single bond is 0.154 nm. Thus, the carbon-carbon bonds in the benzene molecule is between double bond and a single bond. This renders the structure of Kekulé.Kekulé describe the structure of benzene by carbon atoms linked to one another to form a ring.• August Kekulé in 1865: The structure illustrates that the structure of benzene composed three double bonds in the ring 6 members.• The three double bonds can be shifted and return quickly so that the two forms may not be separated.
Orbital benzeneEach carbon atom in benzene tying 3 others using sp2 hybridized orbital forming a planar molecule.Benzene is a symmetrical molecule, hexagonal shape with a bond angle 120oEach C atom has four orbital into the p orbitals. P orbitals overlap will experience suh (overlapping) to form a cloud of electrons as the source of electrons.C. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS heterocyclicAccording to Erich Hückel, a compound that contains five or six-membered ring is aromatic if:• all the constituent atoms lie in a flat (planar)• every atom that form a ring having a 2p orbital• have the pi electrons in the cyclic arrangement of the 2p orbitals as 4n +2 (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...)In addition to benzene and its derivatives, there are several other types of compounds exhibit aromatic properties, which have high unsaturation and showed no reactions like alkenes. Benzene homosiklik included in the class of compounds, ie compounds that have only one type of atom in the ring system. There are heterocyclic compounds, are compounds that have more than one type of atom in the ring system, the ring is composed of one or more atoms that are not carbon atoms. For example, pyridine and pirimidina are aromatic compounds such as benzene. In pyridine one CH unit of benzene is replaced by a nitrogen atom sp2 hybridise, and in pirimidina two CH units replaced by nitrogen atoms are sp2 hybridise.Membered heterocyclic compounds of five such as furan, thiophene, pyrrole, and imidazole also includes aromatic compounds.D. TERMS OF AROMATIC COMPOUNDSAromatics Requirements:1. Molecules have cyclic and flat.2. have p orbitals perpendicular to the ring plane (pi electron delocalization allow).3. have p orbitals perpendicular to the ring plane (pi electron delocalization allow)8 siklooktatetraena not aromatic pi electrons.(Fessenden and Fessenden .463-464: 1982).A. Hückel rule
            In the year 1931 a German chemist Erich Hückel, suggested that an aromatic compound to be flat, monocyclic (one ring) needs to have as many pi elketron 4N + 2, where n is an integer sebuahn. According to the Hückel rule, a ring with pi electrons as 2,6,10 or 14 can be aromatic, but the ring with 8 or 12 pi electrons, can not be. Siklooktatetraena (with 8 electrons pi) does not comply with Hückel rule for aromaticity.Why the 6 or 10 pi electrons are aromatic, whereas 8 pi electrons are not?In order to be aromatic, all pi electrons must be paired, so it is possible overlapping (overlapping) optimal resulting in delocalization perfect.
            If siklooktatetraena flat and has a system similar to pi pi system of benzene, the orbital π1, π2, and π3 will be filled with six pi electrons pi.Dua remaining electrons will each occupy degenerate orbitals and π5 π4 (Hund's rule). Then not all the pi electrons will pair up and will not overlap maksimal.Jadi sikooktatetraena will not be aromatic. (Fessenden and Fessenden .464-464: 1982).Aromatic compounds must meet the following criteria:- Cyclical- Contains a delocalized p electron clouds below and above the plane of the molecule- Double bonds alternate with single bonds- Have a total number of 4N +2 p electrons, where n must bulisal numbers: if the number of electrons in a ring of a cyclic p = 12, then n = 2.5 then instead of aromatic compounds
  B. Ion cyclopentadiene
            Cyclopentadiene is a conjugated diene and aromatic aromatik.Alasan main reason why not is that one carbon atom is sp3, not sp2.Karbon sp3 has no p orbitals take tuk un pi bond, but when taken one of the hydrogen ions in the cyclopentadiene carbon hidrodisasi will change to sp2 and p orbitals will have that contains a pair of electrons.
                             
 Aromatic Aromatic Cation AnionAll the carbon atoms of the cyclopentadiene cation will also be sp2.Is one or both of these ions are aromatic? Each ion has five π molecular orbitals (p orbitals formed from five, one per carbon). Anion cyclopentadiene with six pi electrons (4N +), filling three orbitals and all these pi electrons that are aromatik.Tetapi berpasangan.Maka cation anion it only has four electrons (4N) to fill three orbital.Maka pi electrons is not going all berpasangan.Jadi cation is not aromatic.(Fessenden and Fessenden .465-466: 1982).

Derivative Hidrocarbon

-Organic compounds are divided into two main classes: hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon derivatives
-Hydrocarbon derivatives are molecular compounds of carbon and at least one other element that is not hydrogen
-Organic halides are organic compounds in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by halogen atoms
-Common organic halides include freons (chlorofluorocarbons) and Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene)
-Naming halides uses the same format as branched-chain hydrocarbons
-The branch is named by shortening the halogen name to fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, or iodo-
-In drawing organic halides using IUPAC names, draw the parent chain and add branches at locations specified in the name
eg.

    Cl Cl

     | |

   H-C-C-H

     | |

     H H

1,2-dichloroethane

-Organic halides react fast which is explained from the idea that no strong covalent bond is broken – the electron rearrangement does not involve separation of the carbon atoms
-Addition of halogens could be added to alkynes which results in alkenes or alkanes
-By adding halogens to alkenes, the product could undergo another addition step, by adding halogens to the parent chain, the double bond has to become a single bond in order to accommodate the halogens
eg.

 Br Br              Br Br

  | |                | |

H-C=C-H + Br-Br => H-C-C-H

                    | |

                    Br Br

-By adding hydrogen halides to unsaturated compounds will produce isomers

  H H H               H H H                    H H H

  | | |               | | |                    | | |

H-C=C-C-H + H-Cl => H-C-C-C-H       OR       H-C-C-C-H 

      |               | | |                    | | |

      H              Cl H H                    HCl H

-Substitution reaction is a reaction that involves the breaking of a carbon-hydrogen bond in an alkane or aromatic ring and the replacement of the hydrogen atom with another atom or group of atoms
-With light energy it enables the substitution reaction to move at a noticeable rate eg. C₃H₈ + BR₂ + light => C₃H₇Br + HBR
-Through substitution reaction, in order to name the reaction product, just indicate the location number of the replacement, followed by the halogen prefix (eg. Bromo-) and then state the type of parent chain. Also indicate the second product created from substitution reaction (hydrogen bromide) eg. propane + bromine => 1-bromopropane + hydrogen bromide
-Elimination is an organic reaction in which an alkyl halide reacts with hydroxide ion to produce an alkene by removing a hydrogen and halide ion from the molecule

  H H H             H H H

  | | |             | | |

H-C-C-C-H + OH => H-C=C-C-H + H-O + Br

  | | |                 |       |

  H BrH                 H       H

-Alcohols have properties that can be explained by the presence of a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group attached to a hydrocarbon chain
-Short-chain alcohols are very soluble in water because they form hydrogen bonds with water molecules
-Alcohols are used as solvents in organic reactions because they are effective for both polar and non-polar compounds
-To name alcohols, the –e is dropped from the end of the alkane name and is replaced with –ol eg. Methane => methanol
-Methanol is also called wood alcohol because it was once made by heating wood shavings in the absence of air
-These days, methanol is prepared by combining carbon monoxide and hydrogen at high temperatures and pressure with the use of a catalyst
-Methanol, however, is poisonous to humans. Consuming a small amount could cause blindness or death
-When naming alcohols with more than two carbon atoms, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated
-Alcohols that contain more than one hydroxyl group are called polyalcohols, their names indicate the positions of the hydroxyl groups eg. 1,2-ethanediol
-Alcohols undergo elimination reactions to produce alkenes through being catalyzed by concentrated sulfuric acid, which removes or eliminates a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl group

  H H                  H H

  | |                  | |

H-C-C-H  + acid  =>  H-C=C-H   +   H-O

  | |                                |

  H OH                               H

ethanol + acid => ethene   + water

-Ethers is a family of organic compounds that contain an oxygen atom bonded between two hydrocarbon groups, and have the general formula R₁-O-R₂
-To name ethers add oxy to the prefix for the smaller hydrocarbon group and join it to the alkane name of the larger hydrocarbon group
eg.

CH₃-O-C₂H₅ 

methoxyethane

-Ethers have low solubility in water, low boiling points, and have no evidence of hydrogen bonding
-Ethers undergo chemical change only when treated with powerful reagents under vigorous conditions
-Ethers are formed by the condensation reaction of alcohols
-Condensation reaction is the joining of two molecules and the elimination of a small molecule, usually water
-The carbonyl functional group, -CO-, consists of a carbon atom with a double covalent bond to an oxygen atom
-Aldehydes has the carbonyl group on the terminal carbon atom of a chain
-To name aldehydes, replace the final –e of the name of the corresponding alkane with the suffix –al
-Small aldehyde molecules have sharp, irritating odors whereas larger molecules have flowery odors and is used to make perfumes
-A ketone has the carbonyl group present anywhere in a carbon chain except at the end of the chain
-The difference in position of the carbonyl group affects the chemical reactivity, and enables us to distinguish aldehydes from ketones empirically
-To name ketones, replace the –e ending of the name of the corresponding alkane with –one
-The simplest ketone is acetone (propanone), CH₃COCH₃
-The family of organic compounds, carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl functional group, -COOH, which includes both the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups
-Carboxylic acids are found in citrus fruits, and other foods with properties of having a sour taste
-Carboxylic acids also have distinctive odors (like sweat from a person’s feet)
-The molecules of carboxylic acids are polar and form hydrogen bonds both with each other and with water molecules
-Carboxylic acids acid properties, so a litmus test can separate these compounds from other hydrocarbon derivatives
-To name carboxylic acids, replace the –e ending of the alkane name with –oic, followed by the word “acid”
-Methanoic acid, HCOOH, is the first member of the carboxylic acid family
-Some acids contain two or three carbonyl groups such as oxalic acid, and citric acid

    COOH               CH₂-COOH

    |                  |

    COOH             HO-C-COOH

                       |

                       CH₂-COOH

    

oxalic acid         citric acid

-When carboxylic acids undergo a condensation reaction, in which a carboxylic acid combines with another reactant, it forms two products – an organic compound and water
-Esterification is the condensation reaction in which a carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol to produce ester and water
-carboxylic acid + alcohol => ester + water
-The ester functional group is similar to that of an acid, except that the hydrogen atom of the carboxyl group is replaced by a hydrocarbon branch
-Esters are responsible for the odors of fruits and flowers and are also added to foods for aroma and taste
-To name an ester, determine name of the alkyl group from the alcohol used in the esterification reaction
-Next change the ending of the acid name from “–oic acid” to “–oate”
-ethanoic acid + methanol => methyl ethanoate + water
-Artificial flavorings are made by mixing synthetic esters to give similar odors of the natural substance
-An amide consists of a carboxyl group bonded to a nitrogen atom
-Amides could be formed in condensation reactions
-Amides occur in proteins, the large molecules found in all living organisms
-Peptide bonds is the joining of amino acids together in proteins
-To name amides, have the name of the alkane with the same number of carbon atoms, with the final –e replaced by the suffix –amide
-Change the suffix of the carboxylic acid from “–oic acid” to –amide to have the same name results eg. ethanamide
-Amines consist of one or more hydrocarbon groups bonded to a nitrogen atom
-Through X-Ray diffraction reveals that the amine functional group is a nitrogen atom bonded by single covalent bonds to one, two, or three carbon atoms
-Amines are polar substances that re extremely soluble in water as they form strong hydrogen bonds both to each other and to water
-Amines have peculiar, horrible odors (eg. smell of rotting fish)
-The name of amines include the names of the alkyl groups attached to the nitrogen atom, followed by the suffix –amine eg. methylamine
-Amines with one, two, or three hydrocarbon groups attached to the central nitrogen atom are referred to as primary, secondary, and tertiary
-Primary amines is when a hydrogen atom attached to the nitrogen atom is replaced by a hydrocarbon group
-Secondary amines are when two hydrocarbon groups replaces the hydrogen atoms and tertiary amines replaces all of the hydrogen atoms with hydrocarbon groups
-Amines are used in the synthesis of medicines
-A group of amines found in many plants are called alkaloids
-Many alkaloids influence the function of the central nervous systems of animals
-Substitution – alkane/aromatic + halogen + light => organic halide + hydrogen halide
-Elimination – alkyl halide + OH => alkene + water |+ water + halide ion
-Elimination – alcohol + acid => alkene + water

Ethylen

Fruits, especially the old releases a gas called ethylene. Etilendisintesis by plants and cause more rapid ripening process. Selainetilen produced by plants, there is a synthetic ethylene, which etepon (2-kloroetifosfonat acid). Ethylene is a frequently used synthetic traders to accelerate ripening of fruit. Therefore the fruit that parents often put into place closed (brooded) in order to quickly cook.

         Ethylene is a unique compound found only in the form of gas. senyawaini forced ripening fruit, causing the leaves on and stimulate penuaan.Tanaman often increase ethylene production in response to stress dansebelum dead. Ethylene concentration fluctuations of the season to set kapanwaktu grow leaves and when mature buah.Selain spur ripening, ethylene also stimulate seed germination, menebalkanbatang, encourage leaf drop, and it inhibits stem elongation kecambah.Selain, ethylene delay flowering, reduce apical dominance and inisiasiakar, and inhibit seedling stem elongation.
Tomatoes are picked while still green color, and it will own after being picked riper, so farmers have enough time to sell it without worrying tomatoes will quickly rot. While other fruits such as peppers, grapes and strawberries should be picked when ripe and eaten quickly after being picked.Pitohormon Ethylene is a substance contained in tomatoes, peppers, grapes and strawberries that provides its own maturing effect on tomatoes after picking, but why only give substance Pitohormon Ethylene effects on tomatoes alone?Seeing this phenomenon the researchers from the Max PlanckInstitute of Molecular Plant Physiology Potsdam, United States, do peneltian metabolism, by comparing two tomato fruit are climacteric and non-climacteric habanero peppers. Research results, which occurs in tomatoes is, when plucked, tomatoes emit gases Ethylene Pitohormon an increase in the number of large (etilon shock) that can bersintentesis own. Synthesis of Ethylene Pitohormon contains two enzymes ACC synthase and ACC oxidase, these enzymes can lead to riper tomatoes themselves after picking, making green chloroplasts turn into colorful kloropas, forming sugar, and nutrient content changes. While on habanero peppers, Pitohormon Ethylene content did not increase after picking, so it can not be riper own.